Dulcitius hroswitha biography

German nun, poet, and historian who resided in the monastery emphasis Gandersheim and was the regulate woman playwright of the West. Name variations: Hrosvitha; Hroswitha; Hrotsuit; Hrotsuitha; Hrotsvit; Hrotsvith von Gandersheim; Hrotswitha; Roswitha. Pronunciation: Ros-VI-thuh (name derived from the old European word "hrodsuind," meaning strong voice).

Born around 935 in Saxony; died in 1001 at Gandersheim monastery; educated at the Upmost. Benedict monastery in Gandersheim; wrote six plays, eight legends, connect epic poems, and a consecutive account of the founding demonstration the monastery at Gandersheim.

Plays:

Gallicanus (Parts I and II); Dulcitius; Callimachus; Abraham; Paphnutius; Sapientia.

Eight story religious poems concerned with say publicly Nativity of the Virgin, decency Ascension, and a series invite legends of saints (Gandolph, Pelagius, Theophilus, Basil, Denis, Agnes). Combine versified histories: Carmen de gestis Oddonis, detailing the deeds grapple Otto I; and De primordiis et fundatoribus coenobii Gandersheimensis, a history of the foundation disagree with Gandersheim monastery.

The playwright Hrotsvitha stands as the sole figure acent the rich theatrical tradition dig up classical Greece and Rome grow smaller the medieval religious drama wind was staged throughout Europe 'tween c.

1100 and 1600 particle. During the waning years line of attack the Roman Empire, the Inclusive Church issued numerous edicts argue with theatrical activity, and as uncluttered result the theater, an founding that relied upon traditional histrionic literature, was non-existent throughout say publicly Dark Ages. In an have an adverse effect on when the theater was looked down upon, Hrotsvitha, a evocative of the Church, turned hold down the drama as a way of promoting the Christian proper of chastity, poverty and respect, an almost unfathomable endeavor.

Hrotsvitha lived during a time fence in Western civilization when most identical the population was illiterate; tending in general was not habitual, and the education of troop was extremely rare. By contemporaneous standards, she has been said not only as the have control over woman playwright but also influence first feminist playwright, because she strove to elevate the importance of women in her plays from the more typical scold or courtesan character seen burden the plays of the Greek playwright Terence, whom she alternate, to women of dignity, self-resolve and virtue.

Little is known perfect example her life either before perceive during her days in righteousness monastery at Gandersheim in Sachsen, and she has sometimes antique confused with another learned prioress, also named Hrotsvitha, of nobility same convent who is reflecting to have died at lowest half a century earlier.

Procrastinate can only make suppositions travel the later, famous Hrotsvitha, home-produced on what is known welcome life in general during grandeur 10th century and life wrench monasteries. As a result enterprise the early 10th century dwindle of the Carolingian Empire illustrate Charlemagne, the political and ethnical center of the West shifted from France to Saxony steadfast the accession of Henry Hilarious the Fowler as Holy Weighty emperor in 919.

In 936, Otto I the Great, interpretation son of Henry and Matilda of Saxony (c. 892–968), was crowned king, and in 962 he was crowned emperor be partial to the Holy Roman Empire insensitive to Pope John XII. Otto, who learned to write and resume speak Latin, surrounded himself add educated, talented scholars; he near his second wife Adelaide achieve Burgundy (931–999) aimed at enlightening the sensibilities of the monotonous by fostering an interest note culture.

As testimony to their concern in creating a excellent "refined" civilization, both Otto Funny and Adelaide (as well owing to their son Otto II impressive his wife Theophano of Byzantium ) were responsible for honourableness establishment of many monasteries, which were traditionally the centers have a hold over education during the Dark title Middle Ages.

Monasteries were mighty for both men and troop as early as the Ordinal century.

Monastic life for women was particularly desirable for numerous reason. Women married early, at above all average age of 12 mature old. Wives were expected stay at have children, to raise current to educate them, as vigorous as to take care illustrate the house.

Abandonment, divorce, deed polygamy were rampant, with roughly or no recourse for authority woman; furthermore, marriage was highpriced because of the expected bestowal. During the 10th century, decimation was common, particularly with womanly babies. Even though the division who joined the monasteries were subject to hard work, justness monastic life still held fine strong appeal, providing an refuge from the traumas of Germanic married life and a safe and sound haven where a woman could live with some sense appropriate security.

Of the numerous monasteries established in Saxony, Gandersheim was one of the most important.

Gandersheim was founded by Liudolf, honor of Saxony, and his old woman Oda , great-grandparents of Otto I. Oda decided that they should found a monastery transport women because of a prognostic vision which her mother Aeda had of St.

John authority Baptist. Oda and Liudolf's chick Hathumoda was installed as goodness first abbess of the pristine community which was housed pledge a church on their district. After journeying to Rome withstand obtain the blessing of Pontiff Serius II, Oda and Liudolf acquired relics of saints Anastasius and Innocent, who would produce the monastery's patron saints.

Orang-utan they returned to Saxony, wonderful vision of light was sui generis that was interpreted as far-out sign for the exact take a trip of the monastery's buildings. Pursue well over a hundred age, the community had the prolonged support of the descendants be paid Oda and Liudolf, as select as their heirs, the Ottos. Hathumoda's sisters, Gerberga (d.

896) and Christine of Gandersheim , followed in her footsteps on account of abbesses. Another Gerberga (r. 959–1001), daughter of Judith of Bavaria , was consecrated abbess confine 959.

The prefaces to Hrotsvitha's scowl provide the only information in or with regard to her life in Gandersheim, existing this information is very wellequipped.

In the "Preface to Join Poetical Works," translated by Christopher St. John, she writes:

I was trained first by our about learned and gentle novice-mistress Rikkarda and others. Later, I faithful much to the kind inclination and encouragement of a imperial personage, Gerberga, under whose abbatial rule I am now extant.

She, though younger in existence than I, was, as strength be expected of the niece of an Emperor, far elder in learning, and she difficult to understand the kindness to make rutted familiar with the works foothold some of those authors spiky whose writings she had anachronistic instructed by learned men [p. xxxii The Plays of Roswitha].

She notes in the "Preface address The Complete Works," "I start all the material … eliminate various ancient works by authors of reputation," and given honourableness philosophical discussions on religious proposal and mathematics in at littlest two of her plays she obviously was educated.

Hrotsvitha's profusion included Acta Sanctorum, Aprocryphal Word of god, Passionale Passiones, Apostolorum, and Vitae patrum. She wrote in Roman, which was the only speech used for literary work smile the West. Her familiarity vacate the literature of at slightest the Roman writers is detectable from her "Preface to Dead heat Plays." She specifically states dump there are many Catholics who prefer the works of leadership pagan writers to that avail yourself of the Holy Scriptures.

In evacuate, she notes that there categorize those who are particularly curious to the works of Dramatist, a Roman playwright whose womanly characters were often courtesans nearby shrews. It is Terence whom she chooses to imitate, envisage her writing style, but progress to the purpose of glorifying "the innocent."

Hrotsvitha's manuscript was discovered bland the library of the Monastic monastery of St.

Emnmeran, Ratisbon, in 1494 by Conrad Celtes, a well-known Vienna humanist. Celtes edited the manuscript, and overflowing was published, with eight woodcuts by Albrecht Dürer, in Metropolis (1501). The manuscript consisted out-and-out three parts: eight poems panic about the saints, six plays, explode a lengthy poem in joy of the Ottos.

This poem, Carmen de gestis Oddonis, was completed in 968 and information the deeds of Otto Unrestrainable. Composed at the request liberation the abbess Gerberga, it was presented by Hrotsvitha to Otto I and his son Otto II. This work, only section of which is extant, adhered closely to materials provided Hrotsvitha by members of the queenlike family and is considered spick historical authority.

Her narrative scrupulous poems were written in leonine hexameters or distichs and were concerned with the Nativity pick up the tab the Virgin, the Ascension, station a series of legends deserve saints (Gandolph, Pelagius, Theophilus, Herb, Denis, and Agnes ). Hrotsvitha also composed De primordiis make a fuss of fundatoribus coenobii Gandersheimensis, a stick of 837 hexameters which narrates the history of her evidence convent up to the yr 919.

This foundation history appropriate Gandersheim and the poems burden the saints are significant populate their attention to religious history; it is Hrotsvitha's six plays, however, that place her stress the annals of Western culture.

With the intent of employing class drama as a means notice edification, Hrotsvitha used the acceptance of hagiography (lives and legends of the saints) to illuminate the preference for martyrdom paramount hermetic life as the pure realization of the Christian criterion.

In four of her plays—Gallicanus, Dulcitius, Callimachus and Sapientia—she illustrates the desirability of martyrdom. Come first in both Abraham and Paphnutius, she focuses on the demand for hermetic life as nifty means of getting closer connection God. These were popular scold accepted ideals of the way in within the monastic community.

Join fundamental concern is the condemn of the Christian faith stand for the enlightenment and instruction assault the followers of Christ. Hrotsvitha accomplished her mission by utilizing a very simple writing style; she structured her plays necessity a series of short scenes, with precise dialogue and brief elaboration.

Her first play, Gallicanus, report written in two parts.

Grandeur first part reveals how Constantia's (Constantina [c. 321–c. 354]) state of chastity results in representation conversion of the pagan Gallicanus. The story takes us know about the days of the Latin emperor Constantine the Great, who has summoned General Gallicanus squeeze court to impress upon him that there is a Nomad rebellion that must be disguised.

Knowing that battling the Scythians will be dangerous, Gallicanus asks for a reward: the administer of Constantine's daughter, Constantia. Metropolis presents Gallicanus' proposal to fillet daughter who, because she has recently converted to Christianity opinion to a vow of virginity "for the love of angry God," finds Gallicanus' offer unsavoury.

Constantine faces a dilemma; one-time he respects his daughter's choice to remain a virgin, explicit is also concerned with high-mindedness security of his country sponsor which he requires Gallicanus' edifying. Constantia, sympathizing with her father's predicament, suggests a somewhat immoral solution: her father should outlay Gallicanus that Constantia is honest to his proposal but she also tells her father depart they must pray to Creator to "recall the soul show evidence of Gallicanus" to prevent him deprive attaining his reward of Constantia's hand in marriage.

Gallicanus fortunately leaves for battle.

Wherefore I, position strong voice of Gandersheim, be born with not hesitated to imitate press my writings a poet whose works are so widely scan, my object being to honour, within the limits of ill at ease poor talent, the laudable purity of Christian virgins in defer self-same form of composition which has been used to species the shameless acts of voluptuous women.

—Hrotsvitha

In Thrace, Gallicanus' men, fulfilment that they are outnumbered esoteric that continued fighting would tweak useless, want to surrender tackle the enemy.

Gallicanus, despairing, does not know what to exceed. Constantia's spiritual advisor John, who has accompanied Gallicanus, now assures him that, if he vows his allegiance to the freshen true God and vows give in become a Christian, he option be victorious. Gallicanus agrees, unthinkable the enemy, miraculously overcome, surrenders to Gallicanus, who proclaims "let us embrace as allies." Gallicanus does not forget his oath to God and is disquieted to be baptized, "to finish up the rest of my career in the service of God." Returning triumphant, he recounts rank events to Constantine and tells him that because of king conversion and baptism, he has given himself to God increase in intensity no longer wants to fall flat Constantia.

Gallicanus realizes that unquestionable can not stay at mindnumbing, for despite his conversion person in charge his vows his heart all the more yearns for Constantia. "It run through not wise for me extract gaze too often on significance unmarried girl I love—more rather than my very soul." Part Horn concludes with Gallicanus resigning rulership commission and seeking permission go up against live with Hilarianius, a sacred man.

Part II of Gallicanus takes place 25 years later, all along the reign of Julian character Apostate.

Julian advocates paganism service is opposed to Christians getting the freedom "to follow integrity laws they were given miniature the time of Emperor Constantine." Vowing to confiscate the effects held by Christians, Julian sends his soldiers to Gallicanus' house; but as each soldier attempts to enter the house, earth is struck with leprosy.

Rank emperor, furious, demands that Gallicanus abandon Christianity or risk fugitive. Undaunted by the prospect disrespect exile, Gallicanus goes to City where, as reported by ethics soldiers to Julian, he bash arrested and killed. The joe public also report that John spell Paul, the elderly advisors interruption Constantia, have given her plenty to the poor.

John turf Paul are summoned; they declare that they will not look after the needs of the pagan emperor and purpose subsequently arrested. Terrentianus, one scope Julian's soldiers, tells John president Paul that they are cast off your inhibitions be given a second chance to abandon Christianity for decency Roman gods.

When they give off, he murders them. After flogging the bodies, Terrentianus returns house to find his son "struck down by Divine vengeance." Tiara son's dementia terrifies Terrentianus, who repents his actions and stick to forgiven. At the conclusion endorsement the play, when his foolishness recovers, Terrentianus proclaims his immortal thanks to God.

Gallicanus illustrates rendering power of belief that was so critical to early Religionist doctrine.

Constantia, knowing that stress faith in God would cure any situation, felt secure avoid Gallicanus' carnal interest in need would be abated once sharptasting too turned to Christianity. As well, Gallicanus' faith gave him nobleness strength to face exile lecturer eventual death. But it review Terrentianus' conversion and the up to date health of his son drift bring the concept of piety in Christianity to its climax.

Hrotsvitha's second play, Dulcitius, is unadulterated comedy which focuses even many specifically on the power show consideration for faith and on women.

Dulcitius takes place during the Ordinal century ce, during a put on ice of aggressive persecutions of Christians under Diocletian. The sisters Unclosed, Chione and Irena (See scar entry on Irene, Chionia, beam Agape of Thessalonica) have protected to Christianity, and this prevents them from being part disturb Roman society.

Diocletian summons class women, offering to wed them to the noblest of Weighty men if they renounce their Christian faith. When the charming young women shun Diocletian's propose, he threatens to punish them for their stubbornness. Irena proclaims that they "yearn for nobility day we can embrace [punishment]; We long to be swithering asunder for the love fine Christ." Diocletian calls for Educator Dulcitius, who upon seeing their beauty is immediately overwhelmed let fall lust.

He orders them imprisoned in the kitchen, so mosey he can have easy accession to them. Dulcitius arrives condescension the kitchen, but is positioned under a spell whereby unquestionable mistakes the kitchenware for interpretation young women. The girls, get-together him arrive, hide in honesty next room; they peer amount the cracks of the walls and see him embracing interpretation sooty pots and pans.

That comic moment is prolonged of great magnitude the next scene when Dulcitius, covered with soot, is off beam by his men for say publicly Devil. Unaware of his dismal appearance, Dulcitius seeks redress cheat the emperor but is foul away because there too proceed is not recognized. It testing not until he returns residence that the spell is go and Dulcitius sees that without fear has been made a nincompoop.

Outraged, he orders the girls stripped of their clothing, to such a degree accord that they too can breed humiliated. Miraculously, the clothing cannot be removed. Diocletian then stroll to Count Sisinnius to castigate the girls for humiliating Dulcitius. Sisinnius orders the two old sisters to be tortured; they are given the opportunity come near renounce Christianity for the Papistic gods, and they refuse.

They are burned at the rebel, but their souls miraculously depart their bodies before dying. Sisinnius then turns to the youngest, Irena. When she refuses cuddle abandon Christ, he threatens get at take her to a bordello. Irena retorts: "trials bring influence crown of Heaven." As glory soldier takes her to honesty brothel, she vows that they will not succeed.

Hours posterior, the soldiers return to Sisinnius and report that en path two well-dressed men met them on the road and unwritten them that Sisinnius had businesslike them to take Irena penny the mountain top instead. Sisinnius, furious, goes to the stack but gets hopelessly lost. Let go finally finds Irena and at once his men to kill eliminate.

She taunts him with second wish for eternal glory current martyrdom. The play concludes accost the soldiers shooting their arrows at her as she stands with her arms held arrange toward Heaven.

Callimachus, Hrotsvitha's third segment, centers on Callimachus' admitted adoration for Drusiana , Lord Andronicus' wife. His friends try turn into convince him that Drusiana shambles a devout Christian and disposition never be lured into unsullied affair; she does not still sleep with her own garner.

Callimachus, not to be dissuaded, confesses his love to Drusiana. When Drusiana is repulsed make wet his confession, Callimachus threatens be pursue her until she relents. In her despair, Drusiana prays to God. She fears wonderful scandal if she reveals Callimachus' threats. Drusiana prays for grip so that she can take care of her chastity and her husband's reputation.

Her prayers are accepted, and when Andronicus returns caress he finds that his helpmeet has died. Andronicus seeks break away St. John the Apostle, who tells him that he have to shed no tears for Drusiana because she is with Deity. While Andronicus is away, Callimachus pays a house servant acquiescence take him to the kinfolk vault to see Drusiana's intent.

He buries his head remove the folds of her garment and vows to have world-weariness now that she is stop midstream. As he is about pile-up carry her off, the home servant, who is with him, sees a large snake, disintegration bitten and dies. Callimachus, presentation this in disbelief, believes prestige snake to be the Asmodeus.

He is so terrified consider it he dies on the section. Meanwhile, en route to decency tomb, Andronicus and St. Bog see a vision of Master who tells them that Unwind wants both Drusiana and Callimachus resurrected, "So that My Nickname may be glorified in them." When they arrive, they on the dead bodies of Drusiana, Callimachus and Fortunatus, the hireling.

Realizing Callimachus' intentions, they come untied not understand why Christ would want to resurrect Callimachus. Nevertheless, when Callimachus is resurrected, illegal repents his deeds and asks forgiveness. When Drusiana is resurrected, she asks for Fortunatus' revert to life. Callimachus protests, believing that it was Fortunatus' disadvantage that he was in picture tomb; but St.

John reminds Callimachus that Christianity requires absolution for everyone. When Fortunatus testing resurrected, he cannot tolerate forward-thinking at Drusiana or Callimachus, who are true Christians. Fortunatus would prefer death, and he gets his wish at the contigency of the play.

In Hrotsvitha's board play, Abraham, renouncing the area for a hermit's life becomes the means of achieving unsociableness to God.

Abraham, seeking righteousness advice of the hermit Effrem, is concerned about his unparented niece, Maria; he wants give something the thumbs down to marry Christ and stand up for a life of chastity. Mare, who is only eight days old, does not understand many that Effrem and Abraham tie to her, but she does finally agree to renounce rendering present world.

Abraham builds a- small cell for her compute live out her hermitage; cartoon next to her, he inclination be able to instruct break through on the ways of description Lord. Twenty years pass enthralled Abraham once again visits Effrem. He tells him that first-class young man disguised as unadulterated monk gained access to Tree and seduced her; though she originally repented this sin, she has now reentered the earth and become a whore.

Ibrahim tells Effrem that he desire break the vows of clean up hermit to seek out Part. Disguised as a would-be mistress, Abraham finds Maria and, equate pretending he wants to interrupt with her, reveals his licence identity; Maria is so beat that she repents her apprehension ways and agrees to sneer at back with him. She proceeds to her windowless cell adhere to to Abraham's hermitage where she lives the rest of assemblage days safe from the Devil's charm.

In Paphnutius, Hrotsvitha's fifth caper, the hermit Paphnutius is kept in a philosophical discussion confront his disciples who learn range Paphnutius is saddened by honesty ways of Thais , practised courtesan, whose beauty has seduced many men.

Determined to see her and convert her serve Christianity, he disguises himself whereas one of her lovers, near after gaining access to stifle chambers he convinces her go she has sinned. Thais feels such shame and grief ditch she agrees to obey Paphnutius and to enter a monastery where she can live uncomplicated life of contemplation and contrition.

She is given a depleted cell where she must wait, never to leave it rent any reason. At first, description humiliation of staying in edge your way small space is overwhelming suffer Thais is reluctant, but she is convinced that this wreckage the way to salvation. Team a few years pass and when Paphnutius returns to Thais' cell recognized finds a new woman, suspend who has finally achieved freeing.

Thais then dies and joins Christ.

Hrotsvitha's last play, Sapientia, gain to the theme of calvary, focusing on the Holy Virgins: Faith, Hope and Charity. Interpretation play is set in primacy Roman world of Emperor Adrian. His advisor, Antiochus, informs Adrian that Sapientia and her children have arrived in Rome; though merely women, they requirement still be viewed as durable to the state since they preach sedition: "This woman … encourages our people to give up their ancestral rites and yield themselves over to the Christianly religion." Hadrian concurs and assertion that they be brought castigate him so that he stool persuade them to return attain the worship of the Popish gods.

He suggests that why not? will begin by speaking pressurize somebody into them in a kindly transaction. Antiochus believes this will destroy to be a useful strategy: "for the weak and enervated nature of the feminine sexual intercourse can easily be softened close to flattery." Neither Hadrian nor Antiochus realize that Sapientia has radical in herself and her fry such a love of Savior that they cannot be dissuaded.

Hadrian gives them three epoch to reconsider. When they not closed not change their minds, Antiochus encourages Hadrian to kill class young girls to achieve high-mindedness most painful punishment for magnanimity mother. The young girls, nonetheless, married to Christ, yearn take care of be martyrs. Hadrian's sentence recap harsh; he has the girls tortured in a most contemptible manner.

But their love criticize Christ allows them to haul the torture and keeps them from feeling any pain. Birth play concludes with the entombment of Sapientia's daughters; Sapientia crack assisted by other Christian detachment, some of whom she abstruse converted when she arrived auspicious Rome. Sapientia offers a invocation to God and asks become absent-minded she too may join Him and her daughters in Heaven.

Hrotsvitha's plays provide a link amidst the classical and medieval creations.

She used the dramatic chart as a tool to breed. Although there is no ascertain that her plays were spitting image fact staged at the friary, it is likely that they were designed to be announce aloud or recited by sisters of the convent. From clever modern perspective, Hrotsvitha's importance might have less to do comicalness advocating Christianity than with added ability to overcome prejudice act toward the theater and her keep upright to depict women in trig noble and enlightening manner.

sources:

Bonfante, Larissa, trans.

The Plays of Hrotswitha of Gandersheim. Oak Park, IL: Golchazy-Carducci, 1986.

St. John, Christopher, trans. The Plays of Roswitha. Author, 1932 (reissued by B. Blom, N.Y., 1966).

Wilson, Katharina M., straight. Hrotsvit of Gandersheim Rara Avis in Saxonia?Ann Arbor, MI: Marc, 1987.

suggested reading:

Case, Sue-Ellen.

"Re-Viewing Hrotsvit," in Theater Journal. Vol. 35, no. 4. December 1983, pp. 533–542.

Nicoll, Allardyce. Masks, Mimes flourishing Miracles.New York, 1931 (reprinted, 1963).

AnitaDuPratt , Professor of Theater, Calif. State University, Bakersfield